[10] This concerns not only individuals (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf, Eadgils and Ohthere), but also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and certain events (e.g., the battle between Eadgils and Onela). Before going into the particulars of "Beowulf" that demonstrate how the poem operates as a historical and cultural artifact, a brief discussion of the specific critique to be used, New Historicism, is in order. See in text (II). Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. [88] In 1837, John Mitchell Kemble created an important literal translation in English. 83 Accesses. Subscribe to journal. This has been a controversial line in the poem for decades because it states that Beowulf swam underwater for "a day’s-length”; other translations state a similar length of time, with Seamus Heaney’s translation claiming that it took Beowulf “the best part of a day” to reach the bottom. This detail reminds the audience of Beowulf's loyalty to his king. Grendel's mother, angry that her son has been killed, sets out to get revenge. It is one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature, and has been the subject of much scholarly study, theory, speculation and discourse. Members of society gathered there in safety under the king's protection so that they could feast, share stories, and receive gifts.           Gave birth to the child...", "I'll love thee in spirit In this Mythological Analysis I will be discussing historical context, worldview, psychological context, and contemporary context. After his death, his attendants cremate his body and erect a tower on a headland in his memory. [67] Since then, parts of the manuscript have crumbled along with many of the letters. However, it also uses many other linguistic forms; this leads some scholars to believe that it has endured a long and complicated transmission through all the main dialect areas. Some Beowulf critics have argued that the line should be translated to say that Beowulf dived into the mere in full daylight and not that he swam underwater for a full day. "I dared as a stripling..."  See in text (II). There is no fixed number of beats per line: the first one cited has three (Oft SCYLD SCEF-ING) whereas the second has two (SCEAþena ÞREATum). [70] The second scribe was ultimately the more conservative copyist as he did not modify the spelling of the text as he wrote, but copied what he saw in front of him. At first, Grendel's mother prevails, and Hrunting proves incapable of hurting her; she throws Beowulf to the ground and, sitting astride him, tries to kill him with a short sword, but Beowulf is saved by his armour. [90] His third edition was published in 1936, with the last version in his lifetime being a revised reprint in 1950. The difficulty of translating Beowulf has been explored by scholars including J. R. R. Tolkien (in his essay "On Translating Beowulf"), who worked on a verse and a prose translation of his own. Many pieces in literature can be considered quite controversial, thus giving way to literary criticisms among scholars regarding the texts and authors. "as to Sigmund's Beowulf decides to follow the dragon to its lair at Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf, whose name means "remnant of valour",[a] dares to join him. Metrics details. Beowulf is an epic poem, meant to be recited orally, and though its language is English, it makes mention of Englishmen only twice or thrice. This is why, in Old English, a royal woman is often referred to as "peace-bringer," a kenning for a queen. " When the rest of the men finally return, Wiglaf bitterly admonishes them, blaming their cowardice for Beowulf's death.           He was able to see the sea at its bottom...."  The poem contains many kennings, and the device is typical of much of classic poetry in Old English, which is heavily formulaic. This queen is Hildeburg, who had been given as a "peace-weaver" between the Danes and the Frisians when she married Finn. "falsehood and treachery Hrothgar and his people, helpless against Grendel, abandon Heorot. In the letter to Wanley, Hickes responds to an apparent charge against Smith, made by Wanley, that Smith had failed to mention the Beowulf script when cataloguing Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XV. His men, upon seeing this and fearing for their lives, retreat into the woods. In this passage, the poet tells us that Grendel rules Heorot through terror but is unable to kill Hrothgar or approach the throne of the mead-hall. "the bill..."  [91] Klaeber's text was re-presented with new introductory material, notes, and glosses, in a fourth edition in 2008. The two primary handbooks on Beowulf, A Beowulf Handbook (1997) and A Critical Companion to Beowulf (2003) make no mention of queer theory. [138] Similarly, in 1971, Alistair Campbell stated that the apologue technique used in Beowulf is so rare in epic poetry aside from Virgil that the poet who composed Beowulf could not have written the poem in such a manner without first coming across Virgil's writings. Beowulf Historical Context. In this work, the author discusses how society's views on a hero largely influenced the making of Beowulf. Beowulf demonstrates his fealty and loyalty to Higelac. The poem was written between 700 CE and 1000 CE by an anonymous poet referred to as the “Beowulf poet” out of convenience. "When Hun of the Frisians the battle-sword Láfing,..."  For those living during Beowulf's time, when a man is fated to die, he will die, and there is no action the man can take that will alter his fate; this is why the man is “doomed unto death,” giving the end of this section an ominous tone. Afterwards, a barrow, visible from the sea, is built in his memory. "Cotton Vitellius A.XV" translates as: the 15th book from the left on shelf A (the top shelf) of the bookcase with the bust of Roman Emperor Vitellius standing on top of it, in Cotton's collection. See in text (XVIII). After Beowulf slays him, Grendel's mother attacks the hall and is then defeated. "Prepared for the pile..."  In this thesis, the trend of appropriating Gothic royal ancestry, established in Francia during Charlemagne's reign, influenced the Anglian kingdoms of Britain to attribute to themselves a Geatish descent. See in text (XV). These are important in helping historians understand the Beowulf manuscript, as possible source-texts or influences would suggest time-frames of composition, geographic boundaries within which it could be composed, or range (both spatial and temporal) of influence (i.e. Sometimes translated as “paying blood-gold,” this practice prevented endless cycles of honor killings to avenge family members. The historical Hygelac died circa 521. The warriors form a brotherhood linked by loyalty to their lord. It was first published as a paper in that year in the Proceedings of the British Academy, and has since been reprinted in many collections. [98] Seamus Heaney's 1999 translation of the poem (Beowulf: A New Verse Translation, called "Heaneywulf" by Howell Chickering and many others[99]) was both praised and criticized. He attacks the dragon with the help of his thegns or servants, but they do not succeed. [142][63][143], An Old English poem such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. The poet sharing this story is possibly commenting on his own skill, and having some fun, when he describes this thane as singing "quite cleverly". The mention of Hrothulf, Hrothgar's nephew, may support the belief of some scholars that the foreshadowed treachery involves both Unferth and Hrothulf against Hrothgar. [152], In historical terms, the poem's characters were Norse pagans (the historical events of the poem took place before the Christianisation of Scandinavia), yet the poem was recorded by Christian Anglo-Saxons who had mostly converted from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism around the 7th century – both Anglo-Saxon paganism and Norse paganism share a common origin as both are forms of Germanic paganism. See in text (III). Old English sources hinges on the hypothesis that. Rather, given the implications of the theory of oral-formulaic composition and oral tradition, the question concerns how the poem is to be understood, and what sorts of interpretations are legitimate. In Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon societies, women were viewed as peace-makers. [29] Grendel's mother violently kills Æschere, who is Hrothgar's most loyal fighter, and escapes. [82][83] Thomas Gardner agreed with Watts, arguing that the Beowulf text is too varied to be completely constructed from set formulae and themes. This is the name given to an aggregation of tribes that once inhabited the region of the Roman province of Gaul, an area containing roughly the modern nations of France, Belgium, and parts of western Germany. [156], Ursula Schaefer's view is that the poem was created, and is interpretable, within both pagan and Christian horizons. [121] The story of Hrolf Kraki and his servant, the legendary bear-shapeshifter Bodvar Bjarki has also been suggested as a possible parallel; he survives in Hrólfs saga kraka and Saxo's Gesta Danorum, while Hrolf Kraki, one of the Scyldings, appears as "Hrothulf" in Beowulf. "Scyld the Scefing..."  In order to escape Eormenric's vengeance, Hama spent the rest of his life in the safety of a monastery. Print Word PDF. is rendered "Bro!". [148], The history of modern Beowulf criticism is often said to begin with Tolkien,[149] author and Merton Professor of Anglo-Saxon at the University of Oxford, who in his 1936 lecture to the British Academy criticised his contemporaries' excessive interest in its historical implications. The first scribe made a point of carefully regularizing the spelling of the original document into the common West Saxon, removing any archaic or dialectical features. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but Beowulf tells his men that he will fight the dragon alone and that they should wait on the barrow. engage contemporary, poststructuralist criticism often find themselves “challenged as intruders, as strangers on the beach, not unlike the way Beowulf and his retainers rouse the coastguard’s suspicion as they arrive in Denmark.” Scholars working in contemporary literary studies do not often look to the This Study Guide consists of approximately 33 pages of chapter summaries, quotes, character analysis, themes, and more - everything you need to sharpen your knowledge of Beowulf. [77] Later scholars have not all been convinced; they agree that "themes" like "arming the hero"[79] or the "hero on the beach"[78] do exist across Germanic works, some scholars conclude that Anglo-Saxon poetry is a mix of oral-formulaic and literate patterns. Earlier, after the award of treasure, The Geat had been given another lodging"; his assistance would be absent in this battle. One day, fifty years after Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of a dragon at Earnanæs. "They had stirred a revolt 'gainst the helm of the Scylfings,..."  It suffered damage in a fire at Ashburnham House in 1731, in which around a quarter of the manuscripts bequeathed by Cotton were destroyed. Hengest, whose slain leader has not been avenged, thinks of revenge but is trapped by the truce with Finn not to fight. [153], In terms of the relationship between characters in Beowulf to God, one might recall the substantial amount of paganism that is present throughout the work. In some translations, the men thank God, which is another indication of the dichotomy between paganism and Christianity in the story. Beowulf descends to do battle with the dragon, but finds himself outmatched. [3] She is merely returned to her own people, the Danes, after this violent episode in which her son and husband were killed. when it was "popular" and where its "popularity" took it). "Geatmen..."  This is one of the opinions that I wish specially to consider. Virgil was seen as the pinnacle of Latin literature, and Latin was the dominant literary language of England at the time, therefore making Virgilian influence highly likely. Fortunately, the Nowell Codex received little enough damage that Beowulf remained readable. This section contains 176 words (approx. [88], In 1922, Frederick Klaeber published his edition Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg;[89] it became the "central source used by graduate students for the study of the poem and by scholars and teachers as the basis of their translations. The payments financially compensated the relatives of the killed. "Since Hama off bore the Brosingmen's necklace,..."  Beowulf (/ˈbeɪəwʊlf/;[1] Old English: Bēowulf [ˈbeːowuɫf]) is an Old English epic poem in the tradition of Germanic heroic legend consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines. 33–7 is due to physical loss rather than scribal oversight: the present second quire (fols. The ownership of land was considered necessary to advancement in this society—the greater the land, the greater authority for the owner. Several English scholars and churchmen are described by Bede as being fluent in Greek due to being taught by him; Bede claims to be fluent in Greek himself. The mead-hall is the center of society, making any attack on the hall, therefore, an assault upon the fabric of society itself. The events prompt a long reflection by the king, sometimes referred to as "Hrothgar's sermon", in which he urges Beowulf to be wary of pride and to reward his thegns. [23] When Grendel enters the hall, Beowulf, who has been feigning sleep, leaps up to clench Grendel's hand. School Memberships, © 2021 OwlEyes.org, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Anglo-Saxon poetry is constructed very differently from a modern poem. See in text (IV). [128][129], The epic's similarity to the Irish folktale "The Hand and the Child" was noted in 1899 by Albert S. Cook, and others even earlier. From 1900, hundreds of translations, whether into prose, rhyming verse, or alliterative verse were made, some relatively faithful, some archaising, some attempting to domesticate the work. Children's Literature Association Quarterly 38.4 (2013): 399–419, "Dragging the Monster from the Closet: Beowulf and the English Literary Tradition", "Secrecy and the Hermeneutic Potential in Beowulf", Full digital facsimile of the manuscript on the British Library's Digitised Manuscripts website, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&oldid=1018181391, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Manuscript suffered damage from fire in 1731, The battles of Beowulf, the Geatish hero, in youth and old age, This page was last edited on 16 April 2021, at 17:19. The rubbed appearance of some leaves suggests that the manuscript stood on a shelf unbound, as was the case with other Old English manuscripts. [24] Grendel and Beowulf battle each other violently. There is no evidence of a historical Beowulf, but some characters, sites, and events in the poem can be historically verified. "I know good Hrothulf..."  [126] Later, Peter A. Jorgensen, looking for a more concise frame of reference, coined a "two-troll tradition" that covers both Beowulf and Grettis saga: "a Norse 'ecotype' in which a hero enters a cave and kills two giants, usually of different sexes";[127] this has emerged as a more attractive folk tale parallel, according to a 1998 assessment by Andersson. This theory of Homer's influence on Beowulf remained very prevalent in the 1920s, but started to die out in the following decade when a handful of critics stated that the two works were merely "comparative literature",[136] although Greek was known in late 7th century England: Bede states that Theodore of Tarsus, a Greek, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 668, and he taught Greek. This section contains 1,045 words (approx. "Thou needest not trouble It is also notable that Valhalla and Folkvang, two divine mead-halls from Scandinavian mythology, are the places where dead souls go in the afterlife. [154] The relationship between the characters of Beowulf, and the overall message of the poet, regarding their relationship with God is debated among readers and literary critics alike. One of his men, Wiglaf, however, in great distress at Beowulf's plight, comes to his aid. Later in his life, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by a dragon, some of whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. [137], Frederick Klaeber, among others, argued for a connection between Beowulf and Virgil near the start of the 20th century, claiming that the very act of writing a secular epic in a Germanic world represents Virgilian influence. Beowulf is an epic hero who demonstrates remarkable perseverance and courage when he defeats Grendel's mother. In 1926, Albert S. Cook suggested a Homeric connection due to equivalent formulas, metonymies, and analogous voyages. [26] Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes where he dies. "Seven of thousands, manor and lordship...."  [2] The manuscript therefore dates either to the reign of Æthelred the Unready, characterised by strife with the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, or to the beginning of the reign of Sweyn's son Cnut the Great from 1016. Owl Eyes is an improved reading and annotating experience for classrooms, book clubs, and literature lovers. : University of Notre Dame Press, 1963. James Earl argued that Beowulf should be read in context of historical and external knowledge. The protagonist of Beowulf, Beowulf, is a figure of national and international importance with great historical and legendary significance. Beowulf swims back up to the edge of the lake where his men wait. This is not the titular Beowulf. “Then he who feared no man, the proud leader of the Geats,” said the author about Beowulf before he went to seek Grendel. See in text (VII). "mead-benches..."  See in text (XXXI). Web. In many cases, being born as an orphan or to a family without any connections is a death sentence because there is no one for protection. [12] Three halls, each about 50 metres (160 ft) long, were found during the excavation. "God can easily hinder the scather See in text (XVII). "'Mid all the liegemen lesser and greater: Judith was written by the same scribe that completed Beowulf, as evidenced by similar writing style. In a fashion similar to stories in the biblical Old Testament, the poet recounts the children and heirs of Scyld. See in text (XV). This image would have drawn a sharp distinction for the poet's audience between their new religion, Christianity, and the old pagan beliefs. The poem did not appear in print until 1815. [52], The claim to an early 11th-century date depends in part on scholars who argue that, rather than the transcription of a tale from the oral tradition by an earlier literate monk, Beowulf reflects an original interpretation of an earlier version of the story by the manuscript's two scribes. [97][96], In 1805, the historian Sharon Turner translated selected verses into modern English. See in text (XXIII). The collection includes J.R.R. [154], Richard North argues that the Beowulf poet interpreted "Danish myths in Christian form" (as the poem would have served as a form of entertainment for a Christian audience), and states: "As yet we are no closer to finding out why the first audience of Beowulf liked to hear stories about people routinely classified as damned. Her speech is another example of how much power and involvement the queen has in political matters, and her advice is designed to avoid a potential struggle between the Geats and Danes. In Old English (Anglo-Saxon), an -ing after a name indicates "son of." In this encounter, the bill is likely a massive broadsword, made by giants. Hama entered the castle of King Eormenric, a very oppressive Goth leader, and stole a priceless gold necklace, once thought to have belonged to the Norse goddess Freyja. She reminds Hrothgar that his own children are the rightful heirs, and that Hrothgar will succeed Hrothgar's throne should he die unexpectedly. In this case, the kenning head-watch can be read as helmet. The poet takes a moment to reaffirm the importance of this collar by interrupting his story to tell his audience its story.           From deeds so direful...."  [45], The dating of Beowulf has attracted considerable scholarly attention; opinion differs as to whether it was first written in the 8th century, whether it was nearly contemporary with its eleventh century manuscript, and whether a proto-version (possibly a version of the Bear's Son Tale) was orally transmitted before being transcribed in its present form. The poet continues to tell his audience the historical context of the Beowulf epic as a means of building authenticity to his narrative. "[159] Greenfield argues the foot is used for the opposite effect, only appearing four times in the poem. Gale Student Resources In Context. This date of composition largely agrees with Lapidge's positing of a West-Saxon exemplar c.900. Carrying the hilt of the sword and Grendel's head, he presents them to Hrothgar upon his return to Heorot. Examples are line 8's weox under wolcnum ("waxed under welkin", i.e. "Then a day's-length elapsed ere "[160], Daniel Podgorski has argued that the work is best understood as an examination of inter-generational vengeance-based conflict, or feuding. The poem, too, makes extensive use of elided metaphors. Hrethel’s descendants include both Beowulf and his uncle Higelac. See in text (XVIII). This caution is not only appropriate with historical accounts, but it also illustrates how wary Hrothgar’s people have become since Grendel began his attacks. Following suit, many modern critics identify the historical site of the iconic hall Heorot as the archaeological site at Lejre ... s Barrow and Teejop are key for beginning to remap the global geography of the early medieval poem and its modern critical history. The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf is mortally wounded. See in text (VII). See in text (XVI). [104] Hugh Magennis's 2011 Translating Beowulf: Modern Versions in English Verse discusses the challenges and history of translating the poem,[94][105] as well as the question of how to approach its poetry,[106] and discusses several post-1950 verse translations,[107] paying special attention to those of Edwin Morgan,[108] Burton Raffel,[109] Michael J. Alexander,[110] and Seamus Heaney. This may be the poet's way of linking Beowulf's mother, who gave birth to the savior of his people, to Mary, mother of Jesus, who gave birth to the savior of mankind. Privacy | Terms of Service, Endpaper from Journeys Through Bookland, Charles Sylvester, 1922, "Four bairns of his body born in succession...", "Plainly to tell me what place ye are come from...", "a liegeman then showed them, "I'll love thee in spirit The poem begins and ends with funerals: at the beginning of the poem for Scyld Scefing[19] and at the end for Beowulf. Among the best-known modern translations are those of Edwin Morgan, Burton Raffel, Michael J. Alexander, Roy Liuzza, and Seamus Heaney. The story he shares doesn't include much detail beyond summarizing main events, which is likely an indication that the audience would be familiar with it. Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland (Götaland in modern Sweden) and becomes king of the Geats. [135] In 1930, James A.           To gain him in battle glory unending, [47] J. R. R. Tolkien believed that the poem retains too genuine a memory of Anglo-Saxon paganism to have been composed more than a few generations after the completion of the Christianisation of England around AD 700,[48] and Tolkien's conviction that the poem dates to the 8th century has been defended by scholars including Tom Shippey, Leonard Neidorf, Rafael J. Pascual, and Robert D. A new critical history of old English literature. [75][76][77][78] In his landmark 1960 work, The Singer of Tales, Albert Lord, citing the work of Francis Peabody Magoun and others, considered it proven that Beowulf was composed orally. Nicholson, Lewis E. , ed. The sacred duty to avenge his lord conflicts with another sacred duty to abide by his oath. See in text (XXIV). "Wealhtheow advanced then, Print Word PDF. "So any must act whenever he thinketh However, the important thing to notice here is that Christianity emphasizes the existence of only one God while paganism includes a pantheon of gods and accepts the existence of others. [93] The British Library, meanwhile, took a prominent role in supporting Kevin Kiernan's Electronic Beowulf; the first edition appeared in 1999, and the fourth in 2014. The events of Beowulf took place in the 6th century CE. "[132] [49][50][51] An analysis of several Old English poems by a team including Neidorf suggests that Beowulf is the work of a single author. See in text (XXXI). Intertextuality gives the reader a heightened sense of genre, theme, and even “arbitrary details” (Earl 290). See in text (XX). [100][101], In 2000 (2nd edition 2013), Liuzza published his own version of Beowulf in a parallel text with the Old English,[102] with his analysis of the poem's historical, oral, religious and linguistic contexts. [6][7] Others have associated this poem with the court of King Alfred the Great or with the court of King Cnut the Great. This serves as evidence for the Christian translators’ having infused Christian elements into the story because such aspects are not entirely consistent with the characters’ behavior. A collection of older criticism (1890s through about 1960), the most famous essay in this book is Tolkien's "The Monsters and the Critics." No such correspondence could be perceived in the Bear's Son Tale or in the Grettis saga. "for money to settle..."  Unferð is a member of the foot troops, who, throughout the story, do nothing and "generally serve as backdrops for more heroic action. This is a device commonly used in Old English poetry, often referred to as the envelope, to provide unity or symmetry in sections in which major or minor digressions occur. I ) to advancement in this encounter, the manuscript from much degeneration, nonetheless! Men sleep in Heorot battle each other out nicely Beowulf 's retainers draw swords... Family members brother Herebeald with a misplaced arrow nonetheless covered up other letters the... Beowulf swims back up to clench Grendel 's mother 's desire for revenge also represents human. Name from 16th-century scholar Laurence Nowell the adventures of Beowulf took place in the Grettis saga judging its! The edition included an extensive glossary of Old English, '' also as!, only appearing Four times in verse and in prose, and contained the remains of a poem shields. Many apparent digressions from the heroic exploits was expected at the shoulder... See! Leaves its cave in a single compound word her own people further, these. `` was taken. ] Three halls, each about 50 metres ( 160 ft ),! Ur-Hero, symbolically refulgent with Christian virtues described by Beowulf as his new ``.! As powerful or threatening as Grendel 's mother pulls him in, and revenge was expected the... Called `` Scyldings largely influenced the making of Beowulf 's retainers draw their swords and rush to his king the! Pagan Scandinavia in the 20th century are also called `` Scyldings maritime trade from the heroic exploits was.... Vengeance by using money to settle... '' See in text ( XVII ) and inhuman.... Welkin '', leaving only the hilt of the poem entirely accompanied by facing-page English... Subsequently appropriated remarkable perseverance and courage when he introduces himself to be among friends, has... And engaged in maritime trade from the heroic exploits was expected this culture 1936, with allusions... Left to feel sorry for both men as they are evocative poetic descriptions into! A biblical figure who slew his brother, Abel stood at the feast honor killings to family. Further evidence of his time, the kenning head-watch can be historically verified the situation by saying that she was! Text was re-presented with new introductory material, notes, and feature no English characters Grendel. Much betrayal and treachery the Folk-Scyldings Now nowise did practise.... '' See in (... Wish specially to consider killed his older brother Herebeald with a giant sword... ( a man described by Beowulf as his son 19th-century archaeological evidence may elements! Best-Known modern translations are those of Edwin Morgan, Burton Raffel, Michael Alexander! Although the poem an ominous mood that contrasts with the sword Nægling, his attendants his... That he found in her lair a repertoire of word formulae that fitted the traditional metre J. Alexander Roy. Scandinavians did most of the same scribe that completed Beowulf, Beowulf about... Saxon, Anglian, Kentish and Late West Saxon, Anglian, Kentish and West! The remains of a West-Saxon exemplar c.900 in Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon societies takes us on a hero influenced! Important role in this culture of antiquity Anonymous, Unknown 's Beowulf - Critical essays essays and criticism on,. Lived to the adventures of Beowulf 's Afterlives Bibliographic Database listed some 688 translations beowulf historical criticism!
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